Campania

Mount Vesuvius looming over Naples Bay

Mount Vesuvius, the sleeping giant volcano, looming over the Bay of Naples, erupted in 79 AD, covering the Roman city of Pompeii with clouds of deadly ash.  

Over the millennia, compacted layers of ash formed the main component of the distinctive vineyard soils of Campania.  Falernian, the classic wine enjoyed by the Romans, drew its character from the fertile Campanian soil.

In the modern era, the term "wines of antiquity" usually refers to such wines as  Taurasi, Fiano di Avellino, Greco di Tufo and Falanghina.  All of these white wines are made from modern plantings of grapes held over from ancient times, many of which arrived in southern Italy from Greece. 

An aside.  During a trip to southern Italy, I had the pleasure of meeting Antonio Mastroberardino, a quiet studious man who impressed me as being more interested in the ancient history of the grapes of antiquity than the modern wines made from them. 

Perhaps sensing my interest in learning more about the grape and wine history of Campania than seeing another bottling line, Antonio showed me into his spacious office and study.  

Looking more like a library than a winery office, there were scores of books, some describing the evolution of grape varieties, maps of the region, historical maps and charts and photos of the damage to the winery, caused by past earthquakes that had shocked the region.   

As I listened, impressed by this gentle man's knowledge and devotion to a part of wine history I knew little about, Antonio Mastroberardino helped me to appreciate the essence of Campania wine, from grape to glass.

Here are brief sketches of major Campanian grapes and their wines. Except for Taurasi, most of the wines cost under $25. 

Greco di Tufo, the grape name, comes from the village where the grape is planted and the volcanic rock in the vineyards.  Wines must contain a minimum of 85% Greco di Tufo, with up to 15% Coda di Volpa.  Representative Greco di Tufo include Mastroberardino, Feudi San Gregorio, Quintodecimo.

Coda di Volpa means "tail of the fox," the shape of the grape clusters.  DOC Coda di Volpa: 85% Coda di Volpa.  Representative Coda di Volpa: Fattoria La Rivolta, Vadiaperti, Mastroberardino Lacryma Christi del Vesuvio Bianco. 

Fiano di Avellino is a highly valued Campanian grape for sweet wines.  The sweet honied smell of the Fiano grape attracts bees, thus the name Fiano.  Avellino is the Campanian town with nearby Fiano vineyards.  Fianos: Guido Marsella, Quintodecimo, Mastroberardino Radici.

Falanghina is thought to be the grape of the noted Roman wine Falernian. It is scented like orange blossoms, pine and apple.  Representative Campanian Falanghina include La Guardiense Janare, Mastroberardino, Feudi di San Gregorio.  Prices run $20 and under.

Campanian red grapes, Piedirosso and Aglianico, were once thought to have Greek heritage, but DNA has shown both grapes to be natives of southern Italy.

Piedirosso means "red feet" in Italian, a fanciful comparison of a vine stem's color to the color of a dove's foot. More popular in blends, such as 50% of Lacryma Christi, than as a varietal, Piedirosso's flavors are plum, cherry, wild berry and a hint of salty mineral.  Good examples are Mastroberardino Lacryma Christi del Vesuvio, Mustilli Piedirosso Sannio, I Pentri Kerres Piedirosso.

Aglianico is the primary grape of Taurasi, arguably the best known wine of Campania and one of Italy's most revered red wines.  Grown in the volcanic soils of the Apennine foothills, Aglianico is smoky, with black cherry, coffee and mineral, and firm tannins.  Aglianico must contribute at least 85% to the blend, with Piedirosso making up the remaining 15 percent.   

Wines made from international varieties, like Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon, are everywhere in the wine market.  And while wineries in many parts of Italy work with these wines, Campania wineries offer the unique wines of antiquity. 

Pexels Photo 

Next post: A Wine Tale of Two Communes

Leave a comment at boydvino707@gmail.com

Loire Valley

Recently, I was browsing through some wine articles and noticed that a Master Sommelier, said that Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé are over rated. 

That's one person's opinion, and here's another: making such a sweeping statement is not only ridiculous, but it trashes one of the world's best expressions of Sauvignon Blanc, as well as every producer of the popular variety in the eastern Loire Valley.

Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé are Loire icons as well as benchmarks for a style of Sauvignon Blanc emulated throughout the world.

The  Loire Valley is one of the most varied wine regions in France. The name Loire is associated with an historic French valley, but at 600 miles, the Loire is the country's longest river, from Muscadet in the Loire-Atlantique, to Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé at the river's eastern origin.  

Climatically, the valley changes from cool marine to warn inland, with gradations along the way influenced by the Loire River. These variations are subtle, but over time, evidence of changes in the environment showed an ideal  match of grape variety and terroir.

The changes happened slowly over the millennia, but by the early 20th century, grape and terroir had long been in place.

Prior to World War II, Loire wines were mostly not known in the United States.  American G-Is, stationed along the Loire Valley, had developed a taste for the Loire wines.  After the war, they asked for Loire wines when they returned home. 

In their off-duty time, the Americans roamed up and down the Loire, enjoying the valley's patchwork of green vineyards, moated castles, geometric gardens,  and fertile fields of grain.

The variety of Loire wines that attracted the Americans is extensive. Take your pick of sparkling Crément de Loire, long-lived Chenin Blancs of Savenniéres, pale pink Rosé d'Anjou, richly textured, full fruit Cabernet Franc of Chinon, crisp mineral laced Sauvignon Blanc, or sweet moelleux Vouvray Chenins. 

Production of many of the Loire wines is small and they mostly are not seen in the U.S. market.  These seven wines, though, are generally available: 

Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé, on opposite sides of the upper Loire River, have Sauvignon Blanc in common, but they are different wines.  Sancerre is racy with a mineral undertone.  Pouilly-Fumé is famously for flinty soil and a "smoky," supposedly from the morning mist hanging over the vineyards. Both Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé are made in a pure varietal style and an oaked version.  Sancerre is the best known in the United States, although both wines have their champions.  

Chenin Blanc

Vouvray, the noteworthy white wine from the Touraine district, is for Chenin Blanc lovers. Sometimes called Pineau de la Loire, the Chenin Blanc of Vouvray is golden and aromatic, supported by brisk acidity.  Vouvray is versatile, made in dry and medium-dry styles, plus sparkling and sweet versions.

Chinon and Bourgueil are the Loire's two major red wine appellations, in the Touraine district.  The main grape in both wines is Cabernet Franc, although Cabernet Sauvignon is allowed.  Both areas make small amounts of rosé, and Chinon has a little dry Chenin Blanc, while Bourgueil is noted for its long-lived reds. 

Saumur, between Touraine and Anjou, started out as a sweet wine district, then near the end of the 19th century, converted to sparkling and dry red wines made from Cabernet Franc.  A small amount of sweet Chenin Blanc is made in the Coteaux de Saumur appellation.

Muscadet is a dry white wine that, while having seen better days, is still vital.  Made near the mouth of the Loire river from the Melon de Bourgogne grape, most of the wine carries the Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine appellation.  And, there are three others, including the basic Muscat appellation, that can include 10% Chardonnay.  Since the 1980s, Muscadet winemakers have dabbled in lees contact and barrel fermentation.

Today, most of the attention directed at French wine usually settles on Bordeaux and Burgundy.  Fortunately, writers and marketers are looking closely at  alternative wines, including those from the Loire Valley. 

Next post:  Historic Wines of Campania

Leave a comment at boydvino707@gmail.com

 

Marvelous Mendocino

John Parducci

In the early days of my eager exploration of different wines and wine regions, I thought of Mendocino as an afterthought, a not-too-serious place for wine on the western side of the northern California foothills. 

Then, I met John Parduccci, one of the last of the winemaking farmers, from Mendocino County, who told me about the value and soul of wine long before it became fashionable in the early 1970s. 

Parducci didn't suffer fools gladly.  He was gruff and impatient with pretenders, especially  those who loudly claimed that Mendocino wine was somehow inferior to the wine of Napa Valley.  

In those days, Anderson Valley, a wine mecca on the west edge of Mendocino County, was not as well known as Ukiah, the location of Parducci Wine Cellars.  But I was curious about Anderson Valley wine, so while Parducci poured me one of his latest releases, at the rustic tasting bar in Parducci Cellar's first public tasting room, I asked him about Anderson Valley. 

He deflected my question, steering the conversation back to Ukiah and the vineyards Parducci farmed in that part of the county.  As an early teenager, Parducci worked the family vineyards on an old tractor, causing stress to his back, that showed up later in life.

John Parducci was a proud defender of Mendocino wine and he wanted America's wine drinkers to know about the wines.  

Parducci passed away in 2014, but he would have been happy to know that today Mendocino has a dozen AVAs and produces a range of wines, from Cabernet Sauvignon to Pinot Noir and Chardonnay to Gewurztraminer. 

Anderson Valley is arguably Mendocino's marquee wine region. The western end of the valley opens to the Pacific Ocean, allowing cool breezes to moderate the ripening of richly textured Pinot Noir and crisp flavor-packed white wines like Riesling, Gewurztraminer and Chardonnay. 

Anderson Valley wineries of note include Greenwood Ridge Vineyards, Navarro Vineyard, Goldeneye, Handley Cellars and Husch Vineyard. In 1982, Anderson Valley got a significant boost with the introduction of Roederer Estate sparkling wines,   owned by Roederer Champagne.

East of Anderson Valley, the growing climate is better suited to Bordeaux varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot.  The Highway 101 corridor between Hopland and Ukiah is home to Fetzer Bonterra, Brutocao Cellars, Graziano Family and Milano Hopland.  

Paul Dolan, former Fetzer winemaker, promoted sustainable winemaking.  He helped  convert the Fetzer operation to organic and then biodynamic grape growing. Later, he  revamped the Parducci brand to green grape growing and winemaking, at the Mendocino Wine Company location north of Ukiah. 

At the northern end of Mendocino is Redwood Valley,  where the Fetzer family settled before branching out around Mendocino and nearby Lake counties.  Barney Fetzer led his large family in establishing the area for award winning  Zinfandel and Petite Sirah. 

Yorkville Highlands is on the twisting county road out of Cloverdale heading to the ocean, with Yorkville Cellars and Wattlecreek Vineyard, among the highland's few wineries. 

Further west is Mendocino Ridge with its high altitude vineyards in the Coast Range. Once a part of Anderson Valley, the  Mendo Ridge Riesling and Gewurztraminer show the same intense varietal character.

In a word, Mendocino is "marvelous" for the variety of wines it offers the wine consumer: cool climate Pinot Noir and Chardonnay from Anderson Valley to Cabernet Sauvignon from the warmer interior Ukiah and Redwood Valley. 

 

Next post: Loire Valley

Leave a comment at boydvino707@gmail.com 

Wines of the Andes

Andes backdrop for Mendoza vineyards

While browsing in your favorite wine shop for South American wines, the ones you're most likely to find are from Argentina and Chile. You might spot the odd wine from Uruguay or Brazil, but the best selections you're likely to see are from South America's two main producers. 

History is uncertain concerning the introduction of European varieties into South America. One theory says that Spanish explorers brought vines into Peru.  Another version maintains that European settlers carried dried grape seeds with them, while another account has missionary monks bringing vines from Europe, for the Eucharist.

However they got there, vinifera vines were introduced in Argentina and Chile sometime after the beginning of the 16th century.  Coming forward a few hundred years opens a current window on South America's major wine regions.

Argentina

A brief glance can help to understand how Argentina is unique  among South American  wine regions. Uruguay and Brazil's Do Sul state share an eastern border, with Paraguay, Bolivia and Peru along the northern part of Argentina. 

South America's massive Andes mountains forms the natural north-south border separating the two countries.  Argentina, the continent's leading wine producer, forms most of the eastern flank of the snow-capped Andes. 

Argentina's wine history is rich and varied, and like other world wine regions, it  was developed and expanded by Catholic missionaries that spread the gospel by supplying wine for the spirit and the stomach.

Mendoza Valley, Argentina's prime wine region, lies at the eastern foot of the Andes, hundreds of miles from the Atlantic Ocean.  Although the majority of the vineyards in the Mendoza are on the relatively flat valley floor, cooler growing conditions are achieved at higher altitudes. In the northern districts of Jujoy and Salta, full-bodied Bordeaux and Rhone varieties are planted between 5,000 and 10,000 feet. 

Malbec was introduced by the mid-19th century, along with other French varieties including Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Syrah and Charbono, known as Bonarda in Argentina.  Although Malbec has lost interest in Bordeaux, the red grape  has become an all-star variety in Argentina.  

The center of production for Malbec in Mendoza, is Lujan de Cuyo.  East of Lujan, the district of Maipu is known for rich, concentrated red wines. Other districts are Uco Valley and southernmost San Rafael, with its reputation for concentrated red varietals.

A selection of white grapes is more limited in Mendoza. Chardonnay is widely planted, especially in the Calchaqui Valley.  But Argentina's signature white wine is Torrontes, with its attractive aromatic, floral character.  

North of Mendoza, the province of San Juan is Argentina's second biggest wine producing region. Warmer than Mendoza, San Juan is known for Malbec, Syrah and Torrontes. 

Further north, the adjoining regions of Salta, Jujoy, Tucuman and Catamarca are known for high altitude vineyards.  The benefit of going higher is more than 300 sun days a year, but the downside is lower yields.  A variety of grapes is planted in the four regions, including Tannat, the red variety that has done well in neighboring Uruguay.

                          

Chile

Whether by intention or chance occurrence, the focus on wine is different for Chile and Argentina.  Chile's numerous wine regions are protected from continental heat by the Andes mountains and by the cold Pacific Ocean, along the coast of Peru in the north, to Tierra del Fuego, at the southern tip of South America.  

No country in the world is as restricted as Chile about where vineyards can be planted. Although Chile is nearly 3,000 miles long, the main area of wine production is concentrated in an area, 60 miles at the widest point, so the vineyard sites are squeezed between the Andes mountains and the Pacific Ocean.   

A counterpart in the Northern Hemisphere would be southern Spain to North Africa. In Chile, though, the heat at these latitudes is mitigated by the cold Humboldt current, running the 3,000 mile length of Chile's coastline. 

Chile has no fewer than 17 wine regions, from Maipo, the largest and most celebrated for Cabernet Sauvignon, to Casablanca, the smallest, with a reputation for Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc.

North of the capital city of Santiago is Aconcagua, an east-west region, known for classic Chilean Cabernet Sauvignon, principally from Viña Errazuriz. 

Cool climate whites, notably Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay are the key wines of  Casablanca, a small region situated close to the cooling Pacific Ocean.  The icy Humboldt current provides the cooling and morning fog.  Although white wines built the region's international reputation, Casablanca is also home to Chile's best Pinot Noir.

Maipo, Curico and Maule are the leading producers in Chile's Central Valley.  Maipo is the most famous, especially for Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay, but also Merlot and Carmenere.  With more than 84,000 acres under vines, Maule is Chile's largest wine region, mainly for Chardonnay and Semillon. 

There are hundreds of wines, from as many wine areas, to chose from, but the dynamic wineries in Argentina and Chile, offer variety and good value. 

 

Next post: Marvelous Mendocino

Leave a comment at boydvino707@gmail.com 

 

Are high prices fueling wine's decline?

 

                                                                                                                                                   Pexels photo

"Perhaps one reason for wine's decline in the US is the effort afoot to make it a favorite billionaires' delicious pastime as a necessity.  I mean, really, a $500 vineyard tour, or a $250 wine tasting?"

That's Jo Diaz (www.wine-blog.org), colleague and fellow wine blogger, letting off a little steam in one of her recent posts, under the title"Wine Decline, But Not In My Home." 

Diaz was speculating about why interest in wine is stagnating in this country, as have  some other wine scribes.  It's a complex dilemma with no one single reason.  

But, have you looked at the price of high-end wine lately?  Granted, everything is expensive today.  And while highly regarded wine caters to a small segment of the wine market, the projected image from these prices says wine is only for the wealthy.  

Some examples of wine prices I've seen lately are heart stopping.  The online wine locator, Wine-Searcher has been running a series of articles listing the ten most expensive wines from various places, like "The Most Expensive Bordeaux."  

Here are prices of 11 wines, from must-have places., as posted on Wine-Searcher:

Bass Philip Reserve Gippsland, New Zealand Pinot Noir, $880

Chateau Haut-Brion Blanc, Graves, Bordeaux, $943

Harlan Estate Napa Valley Cabernet Sauvignon, $1,500 

Screaming Eagle Napa Valley Sauvignon Blanc, $3400

Chateau Le Pin Pomerol, $3,700 

Screaming Eagle Napa Valley Cabernet Sauvignon, $3,800

Chateau Petrus Pomerol, $4,600 

Dom Perignon P3 Plenitude Brut Champagne, $5,225

Ghost Horse Napa Valley Cabernet Sauvignon, $6,000

Domaine Jean-Louis Chave Ermitage Cuvee Cathelin Rhone, $9,500

Leroy Domaine d'Auvenay Batard-Montrachet Grand Cru Burgundy, $26,000 

Of course, there is always a market for these wines, at any price.  Unfortunately, the rare and pricey will always be attractive to those who only seek status, or will pay any price for an object that few others can afford. 

Some of the things supporting the theory that some wineries are charging unreasonable high prices simply because they can, include:  

Wine is such a pleasure that it's unconscionable for anyone to price it beyond the budget of many wine drinkers...wine prices might be lower were it not for the three-tier system of controlling the pricing and supply of wine...there is a certain level of arrogance and greed by some winery owners who believe it is their privilege to fleece the very consumers that keep them in  business..."it is what it is" does not qualify as a justification for price gouging.

All that being said, I would add that wine doesn't exist in a vacuum, and those making and selling it need to make a profit.  And, while operating costs continue to rise,  wineries are justified in setting a reasonable increase for their wine prices.

There will always be expensive wine that is unattainable for many wine consumers, and that high cost will force most shoppers toward affordable alternatives.  We can only hope that more people discover wine and that all wine consumers find a comfortable price that will encourage them toward more wine sales.  

I'm going to do my part by continuing to educate and inform folks through this blog. 

 

Next post:  Wine of the Andes

Leave a comment at boydvino707@gmail.com  

  

 

 

Chardonnay Styles

Chardonnay in the shade

No one reading this little essay will be surprised to hear that Chardonnay remains the nation's best selling white wine.  Or, that Chardonnay rules in most of the world's wine drinking countries. 

According to 2024 data, Chardonnay  is the most planted white wine grape in the world.  Same for California, where French Colombard, Pinot Gris, Sauvignon Blanc and Muscat of Alexandria round out the top five. 

I find it surprising that Colombard and Pinot Gris beat out Sauvignon Blanc.  No question that Pinot Gris has been having its day, and maybe still is.  Colombard, though, is another matter.  After a major brush with popularity in France and California, interest in Colombard as a wine grape has been waning.  

At one time, in France, Colombard was a traditional part of Cognac and Armagnac, but it proved unreliable in the vineyard, and plantings have been shrinking. 

In California's Central Valley, where its known as French Colombard, large quantities of the variety are used to fill out jug wine blends.  And because of its neutral character, the French Colombard is a favorite of brandy distillers.

As for Chardonnay, when you think of how many white wine grapes there are, it's impressive that a single grape, with relatively little varietal flavor, is such a market beater in the wine shop, the restaurant and the home dining room.

So, it would be worth knowing why Chardonnay is on so many people's wish list.  And, what is it about Chardonnay that has people asking for it more often than great white wines like Riesling, or Sauvignon Blanc, or Sémillon, or Gewürztraminer?

The Taste of Chardonnay

A semi-popular trend that circulated around California and Washington not long ago was the emergence of unoaked Chardonnay.  Styles went from lots of oak, to no oak, to a little oak, finally to a balanced use of oak as a seasoning.  Lately, winemakers in both states have been pretty good getting the oak seasoning just right.

And the oak is all from French forests.  No winery, known for Chardonnay, ages it in American, Slovenian, German, Italian, Spanish, Hungarian, or oak from anywhere else.

Looking at Chardonnay sans oak, then, there are primary ripe fruit flavors such as  lemons, grapefruit, apples, pears, honeysuckle, roasted nuts, supported by crisp acidity.  Chardonnay from warmer vineyards can lean more toward peach and tropical fruit like pineapple.

Old World and New World

The world of Chardonnay is stylistically split between old world Burgundy, and a New World style, predominately from California and Australia.  Italy, Spain, Germany and Portugal are considered old world.  But, except for northern Italy, the others grow very little Chardonnay.  

White Burgundy flavors  include Granny Smith apple, mineral and bracing acidity.  New World Chardonnay tends to be more ripe fruit, especially mango, passion fruit and Golden Delicious apples.

All of the above are generalizations, since there are many factors that influence the style of any Chardonnay: terroir, clonal selection, use of oak, vineyard orientation, winemaker's preferences, and others.

The important thing is to experiment and sample Chardonnays from different places, until you find the one or two wines that appeal to you the most.  

Unsplash photo 

 

Next post: "You've Gotta Be Joking!" 

Leave a comment at boydvino707@gmail.com 

The Barossa

Storm clouds over Barossa vineyard

In South Australia, a short distance from Adelaide, is a wine region with an international reputation, especially for flavor packed red wine.  Aussie shorthand for the place is"The Barossa."  

But say it like a native, compressing the word so that it sounds like "Ber-ossa," not "Ber-ross-a."  The full name is the Barossa Valley, Australia's premiere producer of a signature red wine, known as Shiraz. 

Syrah is one of the world's best known and best red wines.  The benchmark for world class  Syrah is the northern Rhone Valley of France.  Australians, though, decided to call Syrah after what they believed to be the grape's city of origin, in a land far from France. 

In the 19th century, Australians believed the origin of the Syrah grape was Shiraz, the ancient capital of Persia.  DNA testing eventually proved this wrong, but the Australian wine business had established the name Shiraz, so ever after, the name stuck.

Barossa Shiraz is at the big and robust end of the Syrah style scale. The wines are rich, ripe and concentrated with plenty of dark fruit flavors.  And it is the antithesis  of northern Rhone Syrah, like Cote Rotie, that is all refined smoky spice and raspberry.  

Aside.  In 1993 (Has it been that long ago?) I had the good fortune to be invited as one of two international judges for Penfolds Rewards of Patience, a comprehensive tasting of Penfolds wines, stretching back to the 1950s, held at the Penfolds main winery in Nuriootpa, Barossa Valley.

The marathon tasting of multiple vintages of 13 red wines, seven white wines and a handful of "Special Bin" wines, lasted three days, standing at a tasting bench, and included such vaunted tasting of 22 vintages of the legendary Penfolds Grange. 

Shiraz, the iconic Barossa red wine was represented by five blends (most, like the Grange, blended with 15-20% Cabernet Sauvignon) and three 100% varietal Shiraz: Magill Estate, Coonawarra, Kalimna. 

Common descriptors for the 100% Shiraz, mentioned by most judges, were chocolate, plum, mulberry, spice and saddle leather. The addition of Cabernet Sauvignon, in the Shiraz/Cabernet blends, shifted the descriptors more to blackberry, leafy and anise.  

Of course, life is not all Shiraz, even in The Barossa.  After all, what would life be like without Cabernet Sauvignon or even Grenache, two reds that are part of the mix in the Barossa Valley and neighboring Eden Valley, officially a part of The Barossa.   

Here's a brief look at what to expect from Barossa's main grapes: 

Cabernet Sauvignon: deep in color, with forward cherry and plum flavors; excellent as a varietal and in blends, such as Penfolds Bin 707, Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz.  

Grenache: ripe raspberry, fine tannin and good acidity; Barossa draws its depth and complexity from a high percentage of old vine Grenache.

Mourvedre: called Mataro by Barossa old timers, Mourvedre is dense and herbal, mostly from old vines that can also impart ginger and ripe blackberry notes. 

Riesling: still the most planted white grape in The Barossa, the variety is known for its intense tropical fruit and citrus flavors, such as the range of Rieslings from Wolf Blass. 

Chardonnay: not a star player in The Barossa, but is full bodied with crisp acidity and ripe apple flavors.

Semillon: the Barossa style follows the robust full-bodied Australian style for this popular white wine.  Barossa Semillon, especially aged in American oak, is rich and figgy. 

As a seasoned wine drinker, or an advocate expanding your wine knowledge of Australian wine, a good starting place is the Barossa Valley.  In the words of the Down Under's noted wine writer, James Halliday, "The Barossa Valley is, and always will be, the womb of the Australian wine industry."

 

Next post: Chardonnay Styles 

Leave a comment at boydvino707@gmail.com 

Touring Tuscany

A Tuscan house on a hill

In 1996, the saturated genre of lifestyle books was rocked by the release of "Under the Tuscan Sun," a glossy memoir about life in a small town in Tuscany.  In the highly descriptive account, American author, Frances Mayes, detailed the joys and frustrations of restoring a run-down villa, in the scenic hilltop town of Cortona. 

Mayes infused her story with colorful characters and recounted her experiences enjoying local food and wines.  Her personal tale ignited the imaginations of American readers looking for new travel adventures.  

For years, savvy wine tourists knew about Tuscany and loved the place, but Mayes' book opened new vistas for people discovering one of Italy's most beautiful and magical wine regions for the first time. 

Tuscany radiates a quality that is hard to describe. But to truly understand why people are so crazy about the place, you have to go there.  There's the Tuscan landscape, the art, the towns, the medieval architecture, the Etruscan history and, of course, the people and their passion for the local food and wine.

Perhaps, nowhere else in Italy, does all of these attractions meld into one satisfying package as in Tuscany.  

A visit to Tuscany is a stimulating experience. Pulling off the road for a break you might see two carabiniere having their espresso with a  shot of anisette, enjoy a performance of Puccini's "Madama Butterfly" in the Florence opera house, or learn about the wide variety of Tuscan grapes and wine. 

Sangiovese is the principal red grape of Tuscany.  Not only is Sangiovese a major variety in Tuscan wine, but it's grown nearly everywhere along the Italian peninsula, except south of Rome and Sicily, where hardier red grapes are better suited to withstand the sustained higher daytime heat and sultry nights.

The taste of Sangiovese might be described as savory, with traces of tart cherries and herbs.  A lot of Sangiovese, especially California as a varietal, is masked by vanilla notes from new oak.  Tuscan Sangiovese, sometimes blended with a little (or a lot) of Cabernet Sauvignon, can be overshadowed by the more dominant flavors of the cabernet.  

 Tuscan Sangiovese forms the base for Chianti, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano and Brunello di Montalcino. Additionally, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc and Syrah are blended with Sangiovese in proprietary wines like Sassicaia and Ornellaia.

 An aside. My first visit to Tuscany was in the early 1950s. I was a young airman, stationed in Germany, with a curiosity to see as much of Europe as I could afford.  So, my friend Tom and I took off on a road trip to Italy in my 1950 Chevy Bel-Air. 

We were headed for Naples and the Isle of Capri, slowly navigating a route that took us through Tuscany on pokey two-lane roads. No maps and, of course, no GPS. I didn't know about Tuscany then, even though our destination that day was the city of Florence. 

Tom Indelicato, an Italian-American from Queens, had  a New Yorker's understanding of Italian food and wine. As a growing boy, I ate a lot of Italian food at the table of a large welcoming family my mother worked for, at their Italian deli and Hoagie shop in suburban Philly. 

Even with our limited experience of Italian food, Tom and I were impressed with the quality of food and wine we sampled on our way through Tuscany, and how eager we were to eat as much of it as we could during our travels.  

It may sound like an exaggeration, but after numerous visits, I'm convinced that you have to work hard to find poor food and average wine in Italy. 

Reliving the pleasures, especially the wines of Tuscany I was introduced to in the 1950s, have been repeated numerous times on return visits as a wine writer.  

There are at least six distinct varieties in Italy called Trebbiano, including Trebbiano Toscano, the main white variety in Galestro.  Vernaccia is the other notable Tuscan  white grape, used in Vernaccia di San Gimignano.

Trebbiano is also grown mainly as a blending grape or as the base wine for distillates.  The French call it Ugni Blanc. In California, Trebbiano has unexplainably been known as St. Emilion.  And because of its somewhat bland character, the grape picked up the derisive name,"Ugly Blank."   

The best effort to make a respectable Trebbiano is not in Tuscany, where the ordinary  Trebbiano Toscano often presents as a high acid, somewhat green leafy wine, better suited blended with another variety or as the base wine for grape spirits.  Where Trebbiano shows more personality is in Soave Classico and Lugana, both from Venetto.  

 A few more Tuscan wines to consider include Vermentino and Vernaccia di San Giminano, two white wines not as widely known as Trebbiano, although Trebbiano is not as interesting as either Vermentino or Vernaccia. 

International varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah are popular choices blended with Sangiovese, mainly in Chianti and Bolgheri.  Cabernet Franc is an alternate variety, with Cabernet Sauvignon, in Carmignano. 

Few places in the world combine the pleasures of good food and great wine in a relaxing setting as Tuscany.  Thousands of other travelers have discovered the irresistible attraction of Tuscany, but there's still room for the adventurous. 

Unsplash photo 

 

Next post:  The Barossa 

Leave a comment at boydvino707@gmail.com 

 

 

 

 

Spicy Traminer

             

Gewürztraminer, the wine you hate to love, is primed to make your summer more pleasurable.

Loving a fruity white wine with a sweet impression, when you've had the dry wine gospel preached to you for ages, is not easy.  Especially when you try to pronounce the name of that fruity white wine, your tongue gets twisted in a knot.    

Try this: Geh-vairtz-tra-mee-ner. Or, Gah-verts-tra-mener.  

Gewürztraminer (Gewürz) is an example of German word crunching where two words are jammed together to form one word.  The German word for "spice" is "gewürz" and "Traminer" is a white grape with a rosy hue.   The two little dots over the "ü" is an umlaut, a diacritical mark placed over a vowel to indicate a change in sound. 

Rose (especially a heady Old English rose) and litchi (or lychee) are the two words used most often to describe the aroma and taste of a Gewürz.  Most Americans can tell a rose when they smell one, but few Americans know the exotic scent of litchi, a Chinese evergreen. 

Depending on where the grape is grown, the perfume of a Gewürztraminer might also have traces of black tea, orange blossom, honeysuckle and sweet spice, like cinnamon. Oddly, I read one description of Gewürz as smelling like face creme.  

There are more than 25 synonyms for Gewürztraminer, most variations of the Traminer grape name or a form of the mottled pink hue of a ripe Traminer grape.  But Gewürztraminers are not macerated on the skins, so leeching a pink color is not an issue. 

 Worldwide Gewürztraminer 

Years ago, the Traminer grape was common in the German Rheinpfalz, where it is called Clevner.  In the tangled and confusing world of wine grape origins, the Traminer grape was first planted, not in Germany, but the Alto-Adige village of Tramin, Italy.  From northern Italy, the grape was carried to other wine regions.

Today, Gewürz is found, in small vineyard allocations, throughout Europe, mainly in cooler locations like northern Italy, Austria, Hungary and coastal Spain.  Torres, in the Penedes region of eastern Spain, makes Viña Esmeralda, one of Europe's best known Gewürztraminers, outside Alsace.

Gewürztraminer is suited to the terroir of Alsace, on the west side of the Rhein river, across from the German Rheinland.  In the cool river climate, Gewürztraminer hits all the stylistic steps, from dry, to sparkling, late harvest and sweet botrytized wines. 

Historically, Alsatian Gewürz were drier than their German cousins.  But, slowly over the years, residual sweetness in all Alsace white wines crept up, until today, the difference is more closely defined as German Gewürz being fruitier and flowery, while French Gewürz tends to show more spice, bracing acidity, and perhaps, a trace of black pepper. 

There's also some interest for Gewürztraminer in Australia and New Zealand.  And the variety does well in cool parts of California, most notably the  Anderson Valley, in Mendocino County.  

Cool ocean air and occasional fog encourage wineries such as Navarro, Husch and Greenwood Ridge to make award-winning dry, semi-dry and dessert Gewürztraminers, with precise sugar/acid balance and luscious varietal flavors. 

Gewurztraminer at Table

In Alsace there are a handful of traditional foods that pair nicely with a lightly chilled Gewürztraminer, such as onion tart, duck paté, smoked fish and the flavorful French Munster cheese, or the milder American Muenster, with a nutty and buttery flavor.

Gewürztraminer is also nicely matched with Asian foods, especially those flavored with coriander, lemon grass and coconut.  A bowl of Thai Yellow or Massaman Curry and a glass of medium-dry Gewürz ticks all the boxes for me. 

 

Next post: Touring In Tuscany

Leave a comment at boydvino707@gmail.com 

Chablis: the Other White Burgundy

   

Chablis is unique in French wine. The celebrated Burgundian white wine district is officially part of the region of Burgundy, yet, curiously, it is not geographically connected to the Burgundy region. 

Does that mean Chablis is a different wine than white Burgundy? Yes and no.  Both Bourgogne blanc and Chablis are made exclusively from Chardonnay.  At one time, Aligote, a white grape related to Chardonnay, was used in Burgundy, but now while it is still grown in parts of the Cote d'Or, Aligote is not in Chablis.

Chablis and the Cote d'Or are separated by about 60 miles in central France, thus their unique terroirs are influenced by slightly different conditions.  Chablis is, in fact, much closer to Champagne, than it is to the Cote d'Or.   

And there is another important (and controversial) difference.  Opinions differ among Chablis winemakers about whether Chablis should come in contact with oak at any point in the wine making process.

In the Cote d'Or, Chardonnay is seasoned with French oak.  However, Chablis has traditionally been made sans oak.  Sometime early in the 20th century, the question of oak or no oak surfaced in the Chablis wine community, and some winemakers began suggesting their Chablis be made more along the lines of white Burgundy.  For traditionalists, the very idea was heresy. 

Traditional Chablis has a mineral quality that the French describe as gout de pierre à fusil, or the taste of gun flint. That's an outdated descriptor, likely unknown to most Americans.  Recalling a childhood experience, though, might provide a better understanding of the term.   

During early childhood, it wasn't unusual for youngsters to be curious about the taste of small pebbles found near the house.  Taste is a primary way to learn the nature of things, so a child does what comes naturally and tastes the pebbles.  

As a curious child, if you've ever put a stone in your mouth, just to see what it tasted like, then you have some idea of what mineral means in wine terms.

Chablis by the Numbers 

Chablis is classified in four tiers.  At the top are the seven finest Grand Cru vineyards: Blanchots, Bougros, Grenouilles, Les Clos, Les Preuses, Valmur, Valdésir.  These valuable properties, totaling just 240 acres, are on a slope above the Serein River and the town of Chablis.  La Moutonne is the unofficial eighth Grand Cru.

Then come 40 named Premier Cru vineyards, of which only a few are seen today, especially outside Chablis. Numerous other smaller Premier Crus, not named on labels, may use an "umbrella name," such as Fourchaume (14 vineyards) and Vaillons (13 vineyards).

The last two ranks are Chablis and Petit Chablis. Both of these levels, but especially the so-called petits are lighter and short-lived, but are often good values, especially when compared to Chablis Premier Crus. 

 The Price of Chablis

Chablis can be an expensive habit, depending on your wine budget.  Prices for Petit Chablis and Chablis are all over the board.  Domaine Louis Michel Petit Chablis is $30, but for $10 more, there's Dom. Samuel Billand Chablis and Dom. William Fevre Chablis, the latter a reliable producer.

Premier Cru (often seen as 1er Cru) Chablis prices jump $10-$20 or more for these two wines: Dom. Louis Michel 1er Cru, $50 and Dom. Sequinot-Bordel 1er Cru, $45. 

Because of their quality and limited number, Grand Cru Chablis prices are at least double Premier Cru.  Here are three sought after Grand Crus: Dom. Servin Grand Cru Pruses, $90; Dom. Louis Michel Grand Cru Vaudesir, $100; Dom. Christian Moreau Les Clos, $150.

Chablis aficionados contend that if you want good Chablis character, without paying a premium for Grand Cru Chablis, then Premier Cru is the way to go. 

Find the Chablis that fits with your budget and appeals to your taste, pair the wine with some fresh oysters, then relax and ease into summer. 

Unsplash photo 

 

Next Post: Spicy Traminer 

Leave a reply at boydvino707@gmail.com 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sonoma v. Napa

   

There is a special dynamic that develops in families with multiple siblings, where one son or daughter excels over the others.  It's a common occurrence, across a broad spectrum of life and business. 

Same with wine. Certain circumstances cause one wine region to leap ahead of another in popularity.  The recognition and rise in popularity of a region or a specific wine might be due to the natural environment, human skill and ingenuity, or both.

A growing environment for wine grapes is complex and is often described by the French term terroir. There are numerous factors such as climate and soil composition that define the terroir of a specific site or region.   

Sonoma County and Napa Valley are only a few miles apart in northern California, and both places are known for world class Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay and Pinot Noir.  But their terroirs are different.

Yet, in the opinion of many wine professionals and consumers, Napa Valley excels in Cabernet Sauvignon and Sonoma is better known for Pinot Noir.  There are, of course, exceptions like Cabernet from Sonoma's Alexander Valley and Pinot Noir from Napa Carneros.  

So, let's take a closer look at a few general differences, beginning with Cabernet Sauvignon.

Napa Cabernet Sauvignon comes from a collection of relatively small sub-areas such as Oakville, Stags Leap, Atlas Peak, Spring Mountain and Rutherford, with subtle growing differences, like soil variations and climate.  The differences range from the cooler south valley near the city of Napa to the warmer northern vineyards around the town of Calistoga. 

Sonoma County is more diverse, with the best known Cabernet Sauvignon in the Alexander Valley.  Climate and soil variations are felt across a wide spectrum, from warmer Sonoma Valley, to cooler pockets in Green Valley and near the Russian River.

Merlot is a different animal, mainly for its relatively mild softer flavors, compared to the roughness of Cabernet Sauvignon. 

The coolest soils in Sonoma County, forming an ideal medium for Merlot, are in Sonoma Valley, Sonoma Mountain and Bennett Valley, with micro-climate pockets throughout the county.  Producers such as Matanzas Creek, in Bennett Valley, draw maximum varietal fruit and brisk acidity from the valley soils.

It's a wonder Merlot ripens to plum and dark cherry flavors in the Napa Valley.  But the popular varietal does good in cooler south valley vineyards along the Napa River, Napa-Carneros, Wild Horse Valley and Coombsville.

Chardonnay grows best in chalk, limestone and clay soils but it will ripen in a variety of mediums and climates, like the Oakville District, Napa and Sonoma Carneros, Sonoma Coast and the small Chalk Hill and Green Valley sub zones in Russian River Valley. 

Terroir is vital for good varietal  character in Chardonnay.  Diverse areas in Napa and Sonoma can turn out a range of Chardonnay styles, from light and mineral, to warm and tropical.  The key is to root vines in soils where they will produce lean, steely/mineral styles or pineapple, mango and honey.

Pinot Noir has been described as the "heartbreak grape," because it's the most ephemeral wine grape, difficult to grow and make.  The taste of pinot varies from light and sensual or dark and heavy with a deep almost black color and full black cherry accents.  

But reaching for more specifics to describe the taste of Pinot Noir can be a fool's errand because there are many different styles, most of them suggesting descriptors like black cherry, leather and mushrooms.  But these are just descriptions and not what Pinot Noir tastes like. 

For many fans of California Pinot Noir, Sonoma County's Russian River Valley and Carneros are considered prime sites for Pinot Noir.  Other California areas that get high marks for Pinot Noir are Santa Barbara County, Sonoma Coast and Anderson Valley in Mendocino County. 

As a broad general statement, Sonoma Coast Pinots are complex and savory and Russian River Pinot Noirs are fuller and darker than Carneros Pinots, with their raspberry and spicy accents.  Both Carneros and Russian River are cool climate areas, good for the development of bright acidity.

There are plenty of styles to choose.  Find a varietal, then a region a specific producer and decide if your taste is more aligned with Napa Valley or Sonoma County wines. 

                                                                                    -o0o- 

More on AI & Wine: The hottest topic today in technology is the pros and cons of artificial intelligence.  The question for wine consumers:  What is the relationship of AI and wine now and in the future and how will it affect wine production and consumption?  What follows is only part of the answer.

Various articles recently have reported on the advancements of AI in the vineyard, as well as applying AI to wine sales and marketing. And while those prospects are encouraging, there are a number of observers asking for caution, oversight and control.  

Danica Noble, an antitrust attorney with the Washington State Bar Association is calling for more AI oversight, not less.  In an article for "The Seattle Times," Noble says the U.S. Senate is considering a law that would "ban states' ability to regulate AI for the next 10 years. "  

Georgia Hall, a Bloomberg Opinion Columnist reported a warning from Wall Street firms about the rising risk of using AI for criminal purposes, including software hallucinations. 

According to Webster's, a hallucination is "the apparent perception of sights, sounds, etc., that are not actually present."  An AI hallucination is false, nonsensical information presented as factual.  

With all the talk about shrinking wine sales, the wine industry and wine consumers may now be faced with a spate of possible AI hallucinations related to wine marketing material, wine tasting notes, wine articles and more.    

Next post:  Chablis: the Other White Burgundy 

Leave a comment at boydvino707@gmail.com 

 

 

 

   

Northern Rhone Whites

 

France's northern Rhone Valley has a well deserved reputation for red wine.  The litany of Syrah based wines, like Cote Rotie, Hermitage, St. Joseph, is legendary. 

Wine grapes were growing in the Rhone valley as far back as before the spread of Christianity. Unearthed amphorae from the 1st century CE, show that wine was carried up river to Roman legions, and has been part of local culture ever since.  

Syrah, the only red grape allowed in the Northern Rhone, hangs precariously on vines rooted in the steep slopes along the Rhone river.  For many advocates of Syrah there is no better expression of the grape than the wine that comes from the northern Rhone.    

 Held in less esteem by the buying public are Rhone white wines, notably Marsanne, Roussanne and Viognier.  Wine made from these three distinct varieties do not taste like Chardonnay or Sauvignon Blanc, and that may be why Rhone whites never scaled the popular heights of either of those white wines - except, maybe Viognier.  

Viognier

California wine in the late 1990s went through a mini-revolution when Viognier burst on the scene.  Long known in the northern Rhone as the aromatic grape of Condrieu, Viognier made a splash with wine drinkers looking for something new and different. 

Chàteau-Grillet, unique in its expression of Viognier, is one of few appellations owned by a single family and Grillet is one of France's smallest appellations, consisting of less than 10 acres.

The popularity of Viognier spread south in France to Languedoc and overseas to California, Virginia, Texas, South Africa and Australia.  South Australia's Yalumba became a specialist with a string of stylish Viogniers, while other Aussie wineries discovered Viognier was good blended with Shiraz. 

The largest planting of Viognier is in Languedoc, with California in second place.  The warm growing conditions in California is ideal for warmth loving Viognier.  The variety's floral and stone fruit aromas are maximized in that environment.

Viognier's heady aromatics and flavor of ripe peaches and apricots may strike a note of familiarity to lovers of  Albarino, the seafood friendly white wine from Spain's Galicia region.  

 And there is more than passing interest for Viognier in Virginia, New York, Oregon and British Columbia.

Marsanne, a northern Rhone original, is thought to have given birth to Roussanne, its natural blending partner.  The fact that Marsanne is an easier grape to grow than Roussanne has meant that Roussanne vines now out number Marsanne.  It's an economic decision since the two grapes are compatible.  

Limited plantings of Marsanne are found in the southern France regions of Languedoc and Roussillon.  Marsanne is the majority grape in such classic northern Rhone white wines as St. Joseph, Hermitage and Crozes-Hermitage.  

 

                                             

Peachy flavors define young Marsanne.  With age, the transition is to honeysuckle over ripe apricots and peaches.  Be patient with Marsanne, because it sometimes goes through a dumb period where you wonder if there's a future for the wine. 

Roussanne, the aromatic blending partner with Marsanne, is slowly disappearing in the vineyards of the northern Rhone.  It still is an authorized grape in Chateauneuf-du-Pape, while Marsanne is not.  

The thing that eventually dropped Roussanne from favor was a difficulty in the vineyard.  Growers have a hard time getting it ripe and developing full flavors. Even new clones haven't helped, thus the conversion from Roussanne to Marsanne in many vineyards, except for prominent producers like Paul Jaboulet and the Perrin family.

Fruit wine makers say that pear is a challenging fruit for making a fruit wine.  Pear's  delicate flavors do not transfer easily from fruit to wine.  But pear is the primary descriptor of Roussanne.  When mature, Roussanne becomes slightly herbal and nutty.  It is this aged character that gives northern Rhone white wines refinement.  

Pricing Northern Rhone Whites 

Condrieu: prices for this northern Rhone white vary from $40 to $60.  Prices for Chateau-Grillet vary widely from $150 to $350.  Limited quantities of this desirable, expensive French Viognier make it to this country, so you have to shop around. Most U.S Viognier costs between $20 and $40. 

Make northern Rhone wines your next white wine purchase.

 

Next post: Sonoma County

Leave a reply at boydvino707@gmail.com 

A Cabernet Collection

     

Sometimes, a widely-planted grape variety, like Airen, is not the most popular in the area or country where it is planted.  The Spanish red grape Airen accounts for 20% of the country's vineyards, yet it lags well behind Tempranillo in popularity.

On the other hand, Cabernet Sauvignon is the most planted wine grape variety in the world, and it is also the most popular.  In the United States, Cab Sauv, as it's often called, is a stand out grape, ahead of Merlot, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Syrah and Sauvignon Blanc, in popularity.

There are some Cabernet names you might see on wine labels that look like Cabernet Sauvignon, but aren't, including: Cabernet Blanc, a Swiss hybrid; Cabernet Franc, a single varietal and a blending grape; Cabernet Severny, a Russian cold-hardy hybrid.

And, some noted wine grapes have dozens of synonyms or local names; Muscat Blanc racks up more than two dozen. But worldwide, Cabernet Sauvignon is known only by that name, although Petite Vidure, is a name some old-timers still use in Bordeaux for Cab Sauv. 

Getting your head around the popularity of Cabernet Sauvignon can be puzzling when you consider how difficult it is to love a young Cabernet Sauvignon.  Closed, ungenerous aromatics, tight flavors with hard tannin and shy fruit. Cab Sauv is a wine that tests the patience of even the most devoted fan of red wine.

But give Cabernet Sauvignon at least five years of bottle age (top end blends from Bordeaux's Médoc can take up to 10 years) and you have a different wine.  At 10 years the essentials begin to knit together forming a harmonious whole with black fruit accents, softer more approachable tannin, leafy notes and a balanced extended finish.

Mature Cab Sauv from Bordeaux, California, Washington state, Australia, as well as a handful of other select spots where the grape grows to maturity with a minimum of problems in the vineyard, has a certain elegance that earns it a place in your wine memory. 

The Rise of Cab Franc  

As noted above, Cabernet Franc shares a family connection with Cabernet Sauvignon.   In fact, the original Cabernet was likely Franc and not Sauvignon.  Records show that Cabernet Franc was already in St. Emilion long before the 18th century.  The right bank terroir was more hospitable to Franc, while Sauvignon did better in the Médoc. 

In the 1960s, plantings of Cab Sauv and Cab Franc were about even in Bordeaux.  By 2020, white varieties were a drag on the market, so during replanting, more Cab Sauv vines were planted than Cab Franc.   Even before the replanting, though, it was known that Cab Franc performed better in cooler St. Emilion soils, moving Cab Sauv on the right bank to third place behind Cab Franc and Merlot.

Cabernet Franc has more up front fruit than Cabernet Sauvignon and it's lighter in tannin with a distinctive hint of raspberry and a subtle herbaceous note, adding a level of complexity.  These attributes stand out in St. Emilion and Pomerol, where Cab Franc contributes more to the blend.

While it's hard to deny the great appeal of 60% Cab Franc in a St. Emilion like Ch. Cheval Blanc, fans of Cabernet Franc say the variety shines brightest in the Loire Valley sub-regions of  Chinon and Bourgueil. 

Bourgueil, made in two styles, can have a little Cab Sauv, but the wine mainly is all Cab Franc. The lightest style, is from gravel soils closest to the Loire river.  A more substantial version is reflective of the rocky soil further from the river.  

Chinon production is more varied than Bourgueil. This large area in the Touraine district makes a well-known Chenin Blanc, a little rosé and, of course, Cabernet Franc, lots of it.  Chinon comes in three styles: lighter, like Bourguel; a second more robust version; and a complex mineral-laced style. 

Elsewhere, look for lighter Cabernet Franc from Friuli in northern Italy, Australia and New Zealand. Varietal Cabernet Franc vies with Cab Sauv in California and is a major red in Washington state.

Summer is a good time for outdoor grilling of steak or a shank of lamb on a spit.   Add a mixed salad, or cole slaw, and a glass of Cabernet Franc or Cabernet Sauvignon. 

Unsplash image 

 

Next post: Northern Rhone Whites

Leave a comment at boydvino707@gmail.com 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Concentrate on Sauvignon & Franc -- how they differ and how they compliment esch other.